Citation :

Saanvie Gupta, "Attention, Cognitive Flexibility, and Spatial Skills Across Online and Offline Gameplay," International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 37-50, 2026. Crossref, https://doi.org/10.14445/IJHSS-V13I1P104

Abstract

Games have always been more than entertainment, offering an opportunity to work on cognitive and mental skills. The study looks into the effects of games in online and offline games, which are chess, a turn-based, strategic board game; football, a team game; and FIFA, a fast-paced football simulation video game, on three cognitive abilities, which include attention, cognitive flexibility, and spatial awareness. A sample of 70 respondents that consisted of teenagers, young adults, and adults who had at least four months of gaming experience was studied. The structured questionnaire with three validated scales, including an adapted Attention subscale (ATTC), Cognitive Flexibility Inventory, and the Spatial Ability Instrument, was used to collect the data. Independent samples t-tests, one-way ANOVA, and Pearson’s correlation coefficient were used to conduct statistical analysis. There was a significant difference in the scores of the virtual chess players on attention measures, which supported the concept that turn-taking games based on strategy are useful in enhancing sustained attention. By contrast, the trend of increased spatial awareness was observed in FIFA players, but the differences were not statistically significant. The two groups did not differ significantly with respect to cognitive flexibility, which implies that both categories of gameplay increase adaptability and cognitive skills in a similar way. The amount of time taken in playing the two games was positively correlated with improvements in the three cognitive domains. These results outline the cognitive benefits that are distinct and supportive of both games in-person and online, adding to the possible development of skills other than being a mere hobby.

Keywords

Attention, Cognitive flexibility, Chess, Football, Spatial awareness.

References

1. Benoit Bediou et al., “Meta-Analysis of Action Video Game Impact on Perceptual, Attentional, and Cognitive Skills,” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 144, no. 1, pp. 77-110, 2018.
   [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
2. Benoit Bediou et al., “Effects of Action Video Game Play on Cognitive Skills: A Meta-Analysis,” Technology Mind and Behavior, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 28-48, 2023.
   [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
3. John R. Best, “Effects of Physical Activity on Children’s Executive Function: Contributions of Experimental Research on Aerobic Exercise,” Developmental Review, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 331-351, 2010.
   [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
4. Merim Bilalić et al., “Mechanisms and Neural Basis of Object and Pattern Recognition: A Study with Chess Experts,” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, vol. 139, no. 4, pp. 728-742, 2010.
   [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
5. Walter R. Boot et al., “The Effects of Video Game Playing on Attention, Memory, and Executive Control,” Acta Psychologica, vol. 129, no. 3, pp. 387-398, 2008.
   [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
6. Alexander P. Burgoyne et al., “The Relationship between Cognitive Ability and Chess Skill: A Comprehensive Meta-Analysis,” Intelligence, vol. 59, pp. 72-83, 2016.
   [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
7. Guillermo Campitelli, and Fernand Gobet, “Deliberate Practice: Necessary But Not Sufficient,” Current Directions in Psychological Science, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 280-285, 2011.
   [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
8. G. Campitelli, and F. Gobet, FIFA Esports History, FIFA Infinity, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.fifa-infinity.com/fifa-23/fifa-esports-history/
9. John P. Dennis, and Jillon S. Vander Wal, “The Cognitive Flexibility Inventory: Instrument Development and Estimates of Reliability and Validity,” Cognitive Therapy and Research, vol. 34, no. 3, pp. 241-253, 2010.
   [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
10. D. Derryberry, and M.A. Reed, “Anxiety-Related Attentional Biases and Their Regulation by Attentional Control,” Journal of Abnormal Psychology, vol. 111, no. 2, pp. 225-236, 2002.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
11. Adele Diamond, “Executive Functions,” Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 64, pp. 135-168, 2013.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
12. James Paul Gee, “What Video Games Have to Teach us About Learning and Literacy,” Computers in Entertainment (CIE), vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1-4, 2003.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
13. F. Gobet, and G. Campitelli, “The Role of Domain-Specific Practice, Handedness, and Starting Age in Chess,” Developmental Psychology, vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 159-172, 2007.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
14. Fernand Gobet, and Neil Charness, “Expertise in Chess,” The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance, Cambridge University Press, pp. 523-538, 2006.
    [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
15. I. Granic, A. Lobel, and R.C.M.E. Engels, “The Benefits of Playing Video Games,” American Psychologist, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 66-78, 2014.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
16. C. Shawn Green, and Daphne Bavelier, “Action Video Game Modifies Visual Selective Attention,” Nature, vol. 423, no. 6939, pp. 534-537, 2003.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
17. C.S. Green, and D. Bavelier, “Learning, Attentional Control, and Action Video Games,” Current Biology, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. R197-R206, 2012.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
18. Charles H. Hillman, Kirk I. Erickson, and Arthur F. Kramer, “Be Smart, Exercise Your Heart: Exercise Effects on Brain and Cognition,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 58-65, 2008.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]   
19. Jesper Juul, Half-Real: Video Games between Real Rules and Fictional Worlds, MIT Press, 2005.
    [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
20. Shuzo Kumagai et al., “The Impact of Open-Skill exercises and E-Sports on Cognitive Function: A Narrative Review of Their Role in Preventing Cognitive Decline and Dementia,” Brain Sciences, vol. 15, no. 7, pp. 1-19, 2025.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
21. Chuangtao Li et al., “Single Video Games Improve Cognitive Functioning in College Students: Evidence from Behavioral and fNIRS Assessments,” Frontiers in Psychiatry, vol. 16, pp. 1-12, 2025.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
22. Akira Miyake et al., “The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex “Frontal Lobe” Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis,” Cognitive Psychology, vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 49-100, 2000.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
23. H.J.R. Murray, A History of Chess, Clarendon Press, 1913. [Publisher Link]
24. Alina Nazareth, Asiel Herrera, and Shannon M. Pruden, “Explaining Sex Differences in Mental Rotation: Role of Spatial Activity Experience,” Quality & Quantity, vol. 48, no. 5, pp. 2503-2518, 2014.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
25. Federica Federica Pallavicini, Ambra Ferrari, and Fabrizia Mantovani, “Video Games for Well-Being: A Systematic Review on the Application of Computer Games for Cognitive and Emotional Training in the Adult Population,” Frontiers in Psychology, vol. 9, pp. 1-16, 2018.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
26. P.A. Piccione, In Search of the Meaning of Senet, Archaeology, vol. 33, no. 4, pp. 55-58, 1980.
    [Google Scholar]
27. Giovanni Sala, and Fernand Gobet, “Do the Benefits of Chess Instruction Transfer to Academic and Cognitive Skills? A Meta-Analysis,” Educational Research Review, vol. 18, pp 46-57, 2016.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
28. Katie Salen Tekinbas, and Eric Zimmerman, Rules of Play: Game Design Fundamentals, MIT Press, 2004.
    [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
29. Ian Spence, and Jing Feng, “Video Games and Spatial Cognition,” Review of General Psychology, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 92-104, 2010.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
30. Bernard Suits, The Grasshopper: Games, Life and Utopia, University of Toronto Press, 1978.
    [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
31. T.L. Taylor, Play between Worlds: Exploring Online Game Culture, MIT Press, 2006.
    [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
32. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, FIFA (Video Game Series), In Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.britannica.com/topic/FIFA-game-series
33. Phillip D. Tomporowski et al., “Exercise and Children’s Cognition: The Role of Exercise Characteristics and a Place for Metacognition,” Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 497-516, 2008.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
34. Fredrik Ullén, David Zachary Hambrick, and Miriam Anna Mosing, “Rethinking Expertise: A Multifactorial Gene–Environment Interaction Model of Expert Performance,” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 142, no. 4, pp. 427-446, 2016.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
35. David H. Uttal et al., “The Malleability of Spatial Skills: A Meta-Analysis of Training Studies,” Psychological Bulletin, vol. 139, no. 2, pp. 352-402, 2013.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
36. Lot Verburgh et al., “Executive Functioning in Highly Talented Soccer Players,” PLOS ONE, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 1-7, 2014.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
37. Torbjörn Vestberg et al., “Executive Functions Predict the Success of Top Soccer Players,” PLOS ONE, vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 1-5, 2012.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]
38. Torbjörn Vestberg et al., “Core Executive Functions are Associated with Success in Young Elite Soccer Players,” PLOS ONE, vol. 12, no. 2, pp. 1-13, 2017.
    [CrossRef] [Google Scholar] [Publisher Link]